Chinese Painting

The tools used in traditional Chinese painting are paintbrush, ink, traditional paint and special paper or silk.

Chinese painting developed and was classified by theme into three genres: figures, landscapes, and birds-and-flowers.

The birds-and-flowers genre has its roots in the decorative patterns engraved on pottery and bronze ware by early artists. Among the common subjects in this genre, which reached its peak during the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279), are flowers, bamboo, birds, insects, and stones. The genre flourished under Emperor Huizong (1082 - 1135), who was an artist himself and excelled at both calligraphy and traditional painting, especially paintings of exquisite flowers and birds.

Painters who specialized in figures included images of immortals, emperors, court ladies, and common people in their works. Through their depictions of such scenes and activities as feasts, worship and street scenes, these artists reflected the appearance, expressions, ideals, and religious beliefs of the people. Chinese figure painting prominently features verve. The portrayal of figures saw its heyday during the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907). The master of painting, Wu Daozi (about 685 - 758), created many Buddhist murals and other landscape paintings that are marked by variety and vigor. One of his best known works is a depiction of the Heaven King holding his newborn son Sakyamuni to receive the worship of the immortals.

As far back as the Northern and Southern Dynasties (386 - 589), landscape painting separated from the figure genre and continued to enjoy popularity through the Tang Dynasty. This style reflected people's fondness for nature. The artist's use of ink and brush to paint a landscape changed, depending on the scenery itself, the weather (sunny or rainy day), the time of day (morning or night), and the season. The earliest known landscape painting was the Spring Outing by Zhan Ziqian of the Sui Dynasty (581 - 618). It shows an enchanting spring scene with people enjoying popular activities: gentlemen riding and ladies boating. A waterfall behind a bridge, near slopes and distant mountains are drawn with clear, fluent lines.

During the Ming (1368 - 1644) and Qing (1644 - 1911) Dynasties, innovation was stressed, and delicate seal marks, calligraphy, poems and frames increased the elegance and beauty of the paintings.

Much skill is required of the Chinese painter, who must wield the soft brush with strength and dexterity to create a wide variety of lines--thick, thin, dense, light, long, short, dry, wet, etc. Depending on his skills, he might specialize in detailed and delicate line drawing (Gongbi) or abstract, impressionistic (Xieyi) paintings. Line drawing is the basic training of a painter, who must learn it well before moving on to the delicate details of realistic scenes or the more abstract spirit of impressionism. Another special skill worthy of mention is painting with fingers instead of a brush, which creates a very different effect.

No matter what the subject or the style, traditional Chinese painting should be infused with imagination and soul. A traditional story that captures the Chinese view of painting tells about the establishment of a royal college of painting during the reign of Emperor Huizong. Examinations were held to recruit the best painters. Examinees were asked to draw a picture that reflected the joy of people who had just returned from a spring outing, an outing that had been so pleasant that even the horseshoes seemed fragrant. Many endeavored to depict this bright scene but only one work was chosen; the painter simply drew a horse's hoof followed by butterflies which were in graceful flight. This painter had managed to capture the essential spirit and beauty of the scene.

Chinese Calligraphy

In China calligraphy occupies a distinguished position in the field of traditional art. It is not only a means of communication, but also a means of expressing a person's inner world in an aesthetic sense.

Ancient people paid great attention to calligraphy. It was the essential whereby a candidate could manifest his literary talent in the Imperial Examination, for it gave a first impression to the examiners. Children of high officials had to learn and try to write a good hand; even emperors themselves were good at calligraphy, for example, the versatile Emperor Qianlong in the Qing Dynasty (1644 – 1911) has left us many examples of his handwriting on steles in temples and palaces.

To practise calligraphy requires the basic tools of 'four treasures of study' (writing brush, ink stick, paper, and ink slab) as well as much concentration on guiding the soft writing brush charged with fluid ink, and writing on the paper where the ink will diffuse quickly. Once the brush movement hesitates, a black mark is created, so speed, strength and agility is the essence of fine artwork. When writing, many calligraphers will forget all worries and even themselves, combining all thoughts in the beauty of their art. Thus it can be compared with Qigong, which also can mould and improve a person's temper and promote well being.

Calligraphy, like a mirror, is a silent reflection of the soul. It is believed to have verve, of optimism, moderateness, or pessimism. Su Dongpo, one of the four litterateurs in the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279), composed many bold and unconstrained ci (a form of poetry that flourished in the Song Dynasty), also could write handsome characters in good taste.

Today, although various modern ways have been substituted for the original calligraphy, especially which created with a writing brush, people still love the ancient form and practise it untiringly. During the traditional festivals, propitious couplets are always indispensable decorations each written in a beautiful style.

History of Calligraphy

Calligraphy has endured for more than 2,000 years, and evolved into five main ways of writing each with different techniques. Even today, these are still followed and practiced often as a hobby.

Just as calligraphy is an art practiced in western cultures so Chinese writing is a leading component in the four traditional arts, namely lute-playing, chess, calligraphy and painting. With the unification of the Chinese people by the Qin Dynasty (221 BC – 206 BC) the Prime Minister Li Si actively promoted a unified form of writing based on inscriptions on bronze wares of previous states. This was the first example of calligraphy – known as 'seal character' (Zhuanshu). Calligraphers of seal character stress a slender font, even speed and strength, and even thick lines and strokes. When seen as a whole, this calligraphy is quite round and contracted.

In the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 - 220), people tended to simplify the seal character which had many strokes and created the official script. The new calligraphy appeared to be much neater and delicate, turning the round style into a flat one. When beginning to write a horizontal line, one must let the brush go against the direction of point like a silkworm, and concentrate on stretching steadily, then end up with warp like a swallow's tail. This is one of the characteristics – 'silkworm's head and swallow's tail'.

Just as the name implies, the regular script features its regularity and varies from the flat font to a square one. In Chinese it provides a model that can be followed by calligraphy lovers. It has developed since the late Han Dynasty and is today's most popular and influential writing style. The Sage of Calligraphy, Wang Xizhi led the art of calligraphy to its summit. It is recorded that when a carpenter was asked to engrave the wooden stele where there were characters written by Wang Xizhi, he found the ink had filtered into the wood piece 'three fen' deep (3.3cm or 1.3 inch)! This demonstrated the magnitude of his force and people admired him all the more because of it. The period when regular script thrived most was during the Tang Dynasty (618 – 907), when Yan Zhenqing and Liu Gongquan successively established schools of their own styles noted for their strength and mellowness.

Cursive script has more flexibility, for it only maintains the essence of each character and expresses more personal exertion. Therefore its value lies in appreciation more than practicality. While the running hand makes full use of connecting lines between two strokes it can be regarded as the quickly-written form of regular script. These two seem to be more unrestrained than the previous styles.

Four Treasures of the Study

Writing Brush
         

The earliest writing brush that has been found is a relic of the Warring States Period (476 BC – 221 BC). From that time onwards, the brush has evolved into many forms. The nib can be made from rabbit's hair, wool, horsehair, weasel's hair, or bristles, and so on; while the shaft may be made from bamboo, ivory, jade, crystal, gold, silver, porcelain, sandal, ox horn, etc. It is important to see that there can be both soft and hard brushes each producing their own particular styles.

The delicacy gives literators and painters inspiration for creation, and has led to brush shafts being decorated with artistic patterns. One prized example was an ivory-weasel's hair writing brush. On the ivory shaft with the diameter of 0.8 cm, there carved eight figures of the immortals and pavilions concealed seemingly in the clouds. With this in one's hand, the threads of writing would hardly halt.

Ink Stick
A good ink stick should be ground so as to be refined black with luster. With the invention of paper, they were improved accordingly. Since the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220), ink sticks have been made from pine soot, using other procedures that include mixing with glue, steaming and molding. In ancient times, emperors such Qianlong in the Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911) had paid great attention to the production of ink sticks and were expert in their appreciation of quality inks.

Paper
Paper making is among the 'four great inventions' and one of the great contributions that ancient Chinese people made to the world.

Before the existence of paper, our ancestors utilized knots in cords to record events. They then carved on bone, ivory, tortoise shell and bronzes. For very many years they wrote on pieces of bamboo. There is a story that tells how Confucius was such an avid and diligent reader that he would wear away the strips of ox-leather used to bind the pages of bamboo books together. During the early Han Dynasty wealthy people would write upon white silk but this was beyond the reach of the majority as the cloth was so precious.

It was Cai Lun who made the valuable contribution and his research gave rise to paper. Afterwards, many varieties of paper were produced of different quality and usage. Today the Xuan paper originally made in Anhui Province still shines with its charm.

Ink slab
The ink slab is the reputed head of the 'four treasures', for its sobriety and elegance has endured the passage of time. Through ink slabs, people can sample the artistic charm of sculpting and the ink stone's natural tints. Nearly all Chinese calligraphy enthusiasts hold that the star of ink slab is the Duanyan, ink slab produced in Duanzhou of Guangdong Province. It has its base a purple hue and enjoys the poetic name 'purple clouds'. It was always a tribute to the royal families during the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907).

 

Paper Cuttings
Paper-cut is a very distinctive visual art of Chinese handicrafts. It originated from the 6th century when women used to paste golden and silver foil cuttings onto their hair at the temples, and men used them in sacred rituals. Later, they were used during festivals to decorate gates and windows. After hundreds of years' development, now they have become a very popular means of decoration among country folk, especially women.

The main cutting tools are simple: paper and scissors or an engraving knife, but clever and deft craftspeople are remarkably good at cutting in the theme of daily life. When you look at items made in this method carefully, you will be amazed by the true to life expressions of the figure's sentiment and appearance, or portrayal of natural plants and animals' diverse gestures. Patterns of chrysanthemum display the curling petals, pied magpies show their tiny feathers and others such as a married daughter returning to her parents' home, or young people paying a New Year call to their grandparents.

Although other art forms, like painting, can also show similar scenes, paper cutting still stands out for its charm - exacting lines and ingenious patterns which are all hand-made. To make the three-dimensional scenes pop out visually from the paper, as they are usually in monochrome, engravers must exert their imagination. They must delete secondary parts and compose the main body properly, abstractly and boldly. Though simple, the color then appears charmingly bright.

It is easy to learn about cutting a piece of paper but very difficult to master it with perfection. One must grasp the knife in an upright fashion and press evenly on the paper with some strength. Flexibility is required but any hesitation or wiggling will lead to imprecision or damage the whole image. Engravers stress the cutting lines in several styles. They attempt to carve a circle like the moon, a straight line like a stem of wheat, a square like a brick, and jaggedly like the beard.

People find hope and comfort in expressing wishes with paper cuttings. For example: for a wedding ceremony, red paper cuttings are a traditional and required decoration on the tea set, the dressing table glass, and on other furniture. A big red paper character 'Xi' (happiness) is a traditional must on the newlywed's door. Upon the birthday party of a senior, the character 'Shou' represents longevity and will add delight to the whole celebration; while a pattern of plump children cuddling fish signifies that every year they will be abundant in wealth.

 

Chinese Music

Traditional Chinese music can be traced back 7,000 - 8,000 years based on the discovery of a bone flute made in the Neolithic Age. In the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties, only royal families and dignitary officials enjoyed music, which was made on chimes and bells. During the Tang Dynasty, dancing and singing entered the mainstream, spreading from the royal court to the common people. With the introduction of foreign religions such as Buddhism and Islam, exotic and religious melodies were absorbed into Chinese music and were enjoyed by the Chinese people at fairs organized by religious temples.

In the Song Dynasty, original opera such as Zaju and Nanxi was performed in tearooms, theatres, and showplaces. Writers and artists liked it so much that Ci, a new type of literature resembling lyrics, thrived. During the Yuan Dynasty, qu, another type of literature based on music became popular. This was also a period when many traditional musical instruments were developed such as the pipa, the flute, and the zither.

During the Ming (1368 - 1644) and Qing Dynasties (1644 - 1911), the art of traditional opera developed rapidly and diversely in different regions. When these distinctive opera styles were performed at the capital (now called Beijing), artists combined the essence of the different styles and created Beijing opera, one of three cornerstones of Chinese culture (the other two being Chinese medicine and traditional Chinese painting) which continue to be appreciated even in modern times.

Besides these types of music, Chinese peasants were clever enough to compose folk songs, which also developed independently with local flavor. Folk songs described working and daily life such as fishing, farming, and herding and were very popular among the common people.

Traditional Musical Instruments

Traditional Chinese musical instruments can be divided into four categories: stringed instruments, percussion instruments, plucked instruments, and wind instruments. The following are just a few of them:

Horse-Headed Fiddle
         

The Horse-headed fiddle is a bowed stringed-instrument with a scroll carved like a horse's head. It is popular in Mongolian music. With a history of over 1,300 years, it even influenced European string music when Marco Polo brought one back from his travels through Asia. Its wide tonal range and deep, hazy tone color express the joy or pathos of a melody to its fullest.

The Mongolian people bestowed upon their beloved horse-headed fiddle a fantastic legend: during horse-racing at the Nadam Fair -- their featured grand festival--a hero, Su He, and his white horse ran the fastest, which incurred the envy and wrath of the duke. The cruel duke shot the horse dead, and Su He grieved so much that he met his horse in a dream. In the dream, the horse told Su He to make a fiddle from wood and the hair of a horse's tail, and to carve the head of the fiddle in the shape of a horse's head. The lad followed the horse's advice and when he finished, the fiddle produced an extremely vivid sound. From then on, people loved this instrument and composed many songs for it.

Lute (Pipa)
Originally named after the loquat fruit, the earliest pipa known was found to have been made in the Qin Dynasty (221 BC – 206 BC). By the the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907), the pipa had reached its summit. It was loved by everyone--from the royal court to the common folk--and it occupied the predominant place in the orchestra. Many well known writers and poets created poems and mentioned it in their works. Bai Juyi, the master poet, vividly depicted the performance like this: rapid and soft notes mingled were just like big and small pearls dropping onto the jade plates.

Afterwards, the pipa underwent improvement in playing techniques and structure. Players then changed from holding the pipa transversely to holding it vertically, and from using a pick to using the fingers to pluck the strngs directly. In modern times, the volume and resonance has also been improved. The traditional music work 'Spring Moonlight on the Flowers by the River', which has a history of over one hundred years, has brought harmony and a sense of beauty to untold numbers of people.

Erhu
The Erhu, also called 'Huqin', was introduced from the western region during the Tang Dynasty. During the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279), it was refined and improved and new variations appeared. It was also an important instrument for playing the melody of Beijing Opera.

When playing, the player usually stands the Erhu on his lap, and moves the bow across the vertical strings. The well-known music 'Two Springs Reflect the Moon' was created by the blind folk artist Liu Yanjun, also named A Bing by the people. Though he could not see anything of the world, he played his Erhu using his heart and imagination. This melody conjures up a poetic night scene under the moonlight and expresses the composer's desolation and hope.

Flute
The earliest flute was made from bone over 7,000 years ago. In the times since then, most flutes were made of bamboo, which allowed even common people to play it. By covering the holes and blowing through the side hole while moving the fingers flexibly between the six holes, a sound will be produced that is leisurely and mellifluous like sound from far away. This always reminds people of a pastoral picture of a farmer riding on a bull while playing a flute.

 

Shadow Plays
 

Legend has it that more than 2,000 years ago, Emperor Wudi (156-87 B.C.) of the Western Han Dynasty was very depressed with the death of his favorite concubine, Lady Li. To help him get over his sadness, Minister Li Shaoweng made a puppet out of cotton and silk in the likeness of the lady and projected its shadow on a curtain for the emperor to see. The show brought the emperor some consolation. He somehow believed the shadow was his lover's spirit.

Today, this is thought to be the beginning of the shadow show puppetry. Illuminated puppet figures manipulated by three to five artists using a transparent white cloth screen now form an artistic combination of opera, music, fine art and special craftsmanship.

An elaborate process goes into creating the puppets. Sheep or donkey skin is employed with the hair removed. The skin is cleaned and treated chemically to become thin enough to be translucent. It is then coated with tung oil and dried. Various dramatic figures are carved. The trunk, head and limbs of a puppet are separately carved, with thread used to join the parts so the puppets can simulate human movement. The puppets are painted various colors to show off their various qualities -- kind or wicked, beautiful or ugly.

During performances, "actors" are held close to a white curtain with their colored shadows cast on it by a strong light from behind. Moved by guiding sticks, the puppets play roles with musical accompaniment. Parts are played and sung by operators. The plays can be quite dramatic and, when it comes to fairy tales or kungfu stories, the "actors" may be made to ride on clouds or perform unusual feats, to the great enjoyment of the audience, especially children.

Shadow plays are typical traditional entertainment and have survived and thrived over the centuries. They are also one of the earliest arts introduced by China into the West.

The shadow shows became quite popular as early as the Song Dynasty (960-1279) when holidays were marked by the presentation of many shadow plays. During the Ming (1368-1644), there were 40 to 50 shadow show troupes in the city of Beijing alone.

In the 13th century, the shadow shows became regular recreation in the barracks of Mongolian troops. They were spread by the conquering Mongols to distant lands like Persia, Arabia and Turkey. Later, the art was introduced to Southeastern Asian countries, too.

Shadow puppets began to spread to Europe in the mid-18th century, when French missionaries to China took them back to France in 1767 and put on performances in Paris and Marseilles, causing quite a stir. In time, the so-called ombres chinoises, with local modifications and embellishments, became the ombres Francaises and took root in the country.

As present, more than 20 countries are known to have shadow show troupes.

A puppet figure requires five bamboo-sticks to operate. So the performer is usually highly sought-after, since he or she must not only have the ability to operate a puppet and sing and talk, but also be able to play a percussion instrument by foot.

Longdong Shadow Plays

Shadow plays are a folk art, and the Longdong shadow plays originated in rural areas of northwest China's Gansu, Shannxi and Ningxia provinces.

Such art was popular between 14th and 19th Century, which is the Ming and Qing Dynasty in China. Figures used in the play look pretty and charming and carving technique requires great skills.

The material used for Longdong shadow plays is ox skin, which is durable and soft with just the right thickness. People first clean and dry the skin, after drawing and carving the material. Then, then they put it in water to add color and take it out to iron it, which is the most difficult yet important step. Lastly, the skin is dried and bound together before it can be used in performances.

The two figures in the picture are the supreme deity of Taoism and the Lao-tzu by Taoists. Craft of the Lao-tzu by Taoists are complicated and the figure can be moved flexibly. The main colors used are red, yellow, black and green. Yet the figure can display more subtle colors with complicated patterns.

The supreme deity of Taoism has long and thin eyes, small mouth and steep bridge of the nose, giving people an impression that he is mild and generous. The Lao-tzu by Taoists has round eyes, flat nose and pointed forehead, looking energetic and vital.

Shadow plays emphasize performing. By moving every part of the body to inspiring strains of songs, the whole play displays strong local characteristics.

Shaanxi Shadow Plays

The shadow plays in northwest China's Shaanxi province keep the form of story telling. It is the predecessor of the many existing local operas and stands out for its elaborate and colorful engravings plus the exquisite performing skills.

Simple figures and exquisite handicraft are its two features. People draw lines to depict the general figure. Most part of the figures is pierced, with the non-pierced part serving as complements to each other. For different parts -- the figure, stage props and background -- different patterns are used. The play looks beautiful for each detailed part and general design. They look elaborate without too much complexity, or, simple without being empty.

Shadow Plays in Hua County of Shaanxi

Hua County shadow plays usually involved five people. Among them, the most important is "qian sheng." He or she sings for all the characters and plays a drum as well yu-kin (a traditional Chinese musical instrument). Others including "qian shou," who operates the figures; "zuo cao," " shang dang" and "xia dang." Those three characters are in charge of playing other musical instruments.

The Hua County's shadow plays are the oldest artistic variety in the world and were reputed as the "Father of Chinese Drama" as well the beginning of the world's shadow plays, and is renowned for both its ancient qualities and its perfect performance standards.

In the picture shown, the main figure is eye catching both in color and decoration.

Shanxi Shadow Plays

Shadow plays in north China's Shanxi province are similar to those in Shaanxi in terms of artistic features and craftwork skills. People draw lines to decorate the tiny parts since they are difficult for knives to pierce. The colors used are mostly bright red, green and apricot, and are produced by artisans themselves. They are known for lasting for a long time.

In the southern part of Shanxi Province, various traditional patterns appear on the figures and stage props, including patterns such as luck, wealth and longevity, five people winning, and eight fairies offering congratulations for longevity. Also many figures, which often appear in architecture, can be seen on the dress of the figure, including patterns such as the …d character seen in Buddhism, and others for wealth and longevity.

The picture shows a lady who is applying make up in front of a mirror. When played, it requires people to have the ability to display two figures in a harmonious way, a person both inside and outside the mirror. The desk, chair and case are well decorated and the dress, desk and chair are carefully designed.

Traditional Folk Toys

Zhu Jianshen (1447-1487), a Ming Dynasty sovereign of the Forbidden City from 1465 to 1487, was more of a romantic artist than an emperor, and he was fascinated by the lives of those beyond the imperial walls. During the Lantern Festival of 1485, he ordered a duplication of folk celebrations in the palace.

In no time, a spacious courtyard was converted into a lantern fair; archways made of branches were erected and hung with row upon row of lanterns, booths were set up with "vendors" hawking their wares, and folk artists and performers demonstrated their skills. The entire imperial family, eunuchs and court maids attended the lantern fair without ceremony, and even the emperor himself was dressed like a commoner, as children and youngsters scampered about holding lanterns. It was the happiest festival that Zhu Jianshen had ever spent, and he ordered court artists to record the scene on a scroll.

Later, the painting was known as Ming Emperor Xianzong Enjoying the Lantern Festival. The emperor appears in three places in the painting wearing a bright smile. The painting was shown at the 2008 Beijing Olympics opening ceremony.

Floral Lanterns

The Chinese call various kinds of lanterns that are meant for entertainment and admiration "huadeng," or "floral lantern," and they are used on special occasions, the most important being the Yuanxiao Festival on the fifteenth day of the first lunar month. As indispensable as yuanxiao (boiled sticky rice flour balls with sweet fillings) are for the dinner table, various kinds of lanterns, either hung as decorations or held in people’s hands as toys, are essential for the festival. Therefore, people also call it the Lantern Festival.

Hanging lanterns during the Yuanxiao Festival began 1,000 years ago as a folk custom. During the Tang Dynasty (618-907), the imperial court decreed that lanterns should be hung across the country for three days during the festival, and the number of the days were increased to six in the Song Dynasty (960-1279). By the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), it was not until the 10th day that lanterns were taken down. As the festival duration extended, more activities were added. In addition to lantern shows, folk performances and fireworks were included.

Lantern-making techniques improved with the popularity of the festival. Various kinds of materials were used, and new styles developed. The "lantern hill" appeared during the Song Dynasty. It was a scaffold hung with lanterns, and viewed from a distance it looked like an illuminated hill.

Figure lanterns are probably the largest kind of floral lantern. They are made of bamboo strips or metal wires shaped into human or animal figures, then covered with colorful tissue paper. A candle burns at the bottom of the lantern. Children like to show off their lanterns and compare them with those of other children.

Skeletonless red lanterns are made entirely of paper, and are inexpensive to make. They are mostly hung as decorations. Palace lanterns are the luxury category of floral lanterns, using precious wood and other exotic materials. They exhibit exquisite workmanship, such as carving and painting. Conventionally, they are octagonal, hexagonal and tetragonal in shape, and there are hanging, tabletop and hand lanterns.

There are also merry-go-round lanterns - lanterns in human and animal shapes hung from a wheel that revolves around a shaft. These were seen as early as the Song Dynasty.

Kites, the Earliest Aircraft

Historical records show that kites had at least seven names in ancient China, all borrowed from the names of birds, which probably inspired kite makers. During the late Tang Dynasty 1,000 years ago, some craftsman installed music strings on his kites, and in the air they produced a sound like that of a zither, so people called them "fengzheng," or literally "wind zither," a name still used today.

Research indicates that kites were invented not as toys, but rather for military purposes, communication and surveying. They became playthings during the Song Dynasty, and the Ming and Qing dynasties perfected the making and flying of kites.

When kites first became toys for children, they were mostly simple affairs, with three bamboo strips forming the cross braces - two forming a cross and one arching over one end of the cross - that was covered by a piece of paper with a paper streamer or two as the tail. Such kites were nicknamed "tiles," and they were the first lesson for children learning kite making. They are still loved by children today.

Through the centuries, kite making has grown into a sophisticated handicraft. Functionally, they come in four categories: toys, decorations, stunt and application kites. Toy kites are the most diverse variety, while decorative kites have a greater visual appeal than flying characteristics. The third category is known for its aerial stunts, such as diving, soaring and somersaults. Application kites are used for communication, surveying, taking photographs and spreading leaflets.

Apart from "tiles," the huge family of toy kites includes winged (hard and soft), flat, train and convertible kites. Hard-wing kites are made of whole skeletons, so their wings cannot be folded and removed. Some soft wings are fixed on one bamboo strip, leaving the lower wings free to fly with the wind. Kites in the shape of birds and insects mostly use this type of soft wing. There are also soft wings that are removable, or can be folded.

Flat kites are mostly in geometric shapes to better present the maker's painting skills, but they are more demanding to fly. Train kites are composed of many single kites - ranging from 20 to more than 100 - connected by a string.

Dough Figurines

Dough figurines are the embodiment of the Chinese belief that art comes from life, as they were invented by housewives. There are two types of dough figurines: edible and inedible. During Spring Festival and on some other special occasions, housewives - particularly rural ones - mold dough into various patterns before steaming them. These "floral steamed buns" are then exchanged as gifts among relatives and friends, and presented to deities and ancestors as offerings. There are also buns made into animal shapes, which are given to children as edible toys.

The wheat growing provinces of Shanxi and Shaanxi are well known for dough figurines. Their "jujube hill" steamed buns are a special offering to Heaven and Earth. One "jujube hill" takes two kilograms of flour. First, a piece of dough is rolled into a flat triangle, and jujubes are arranged one against the other. Then pieces of dough are made into patterns of clouds, coiled dragons and other auspicious objects before being placed on top, with dough peony flowers, tigers, deer, rabbits and other lovely images studded about. "Jujube hills" are tokens of gratitude to Heaven and Earth for providing people with a good harvest and affluence.

Pure toy dough figurines are not meant for eating. They are made of wheat and sticky rice flour, cooking oil, salt, pigments and preservatives, and their motifs are mostly cartoons and legendary images loved by children. Their workmanship is relatively simple compared with collectible decorative suites based on folk tales, such as the "Eight Immortals Crossing the Sea" and "Zhong Kui Marries off His Sister."

Cloth Toys

As an agricultural people, the ancient Chinese lived by a clear division of labor, with men tending the fields and women staying at home cooking and sewing. Like the "floral steamed buns," cloth toys were invented by housewives.

The cloth tiger is a star of cloth toys and comes in many varieties. In Chinese philosophy, the tiger is a symbol of peace and luck, a protector of family safety and wealth, and a guardian against evil spirits and disasters. In rural areas, children grow up with cloth tigers, in the form of toys, pillows, clothes, shoes and hats.

Housewives do not follow a particular pattern when making cloth tigers. What they come out with depends on the material available. However, there are some basic rules that they stick to, namely exaggeration and variation of the animal's features, particularly the face. Cloth toy tigers are varied in shape, and they may have one head, two heads, or even four heads.

The cloth pouch is another popular plaything and can also be used as a handy container for aromatic herbs.

Wooden Toys and Others

For boys, a big lure of temple fairs are the miscellaneous wooden portfolios of ancient Chinese weapons that are hung and displayed in toy stalls. They will pester their parents to equip them with a broadsword or a spear, and of course, a mask is also necessary. Meanwhile, toddlers can be seen proudly dragging their wooden toy carts fashioned into various animal images. Those in the shape of birds even have wings that flutter with the rolling wheels.

Such wooden toys and masks are usually rough in workmanship and relatively inexpensive, so parents are mostly ready to give in. The "ladle" masks are more exquisite. They are made of halved gourds, which are traditionally used as ladles, and are painted with gorgeous patterns. They were first created for worship ceremonies, so their decorations are more abstract and grotesque than theatrical masks. Many rural residents in Shaanxi used to hang ladle masks on their doors to scare away evil spirits.

The ancient Chinese also invented many other toys by using materials that were handy, such as straw and syrup figurines and shuttlecocks made of feathers. They were no less fun for children, and probably adults as well, than today's high-tech toys.